Nanopore-based polymer analysis with mutally-quenching fluorescent labels

ABSTRACT

The invention is directed to a method for determining a monomer sequence of a polymer that is translocated through a nanopore. Monomers of the polymer are labeled with fluorescent labels such that in free solution fluorescent labels of adjacent monomers substantially quench each other and wherein the nanopore constrains fluorescent labels within its bore into a constrained state wherein no detectable fluorescent signal can be generated. By exciting the fluorescent label of each monomer as it exits the nanopore and transitions from a constrained state to a quenched state with an adjacent fluorescent label, a fluorescent signal can be generated by the exiting fluorescent label that allows its monomer to be identified, thereby permitting a monomer sequence to be determined from a sequence of fluorescent signals as the polymer translocates through the nanopore.

This application claims priority from U.S. provisional application Ser.No. 62/062,256 filed 10 Oct. 2014, which is hereby incorporated byreference in its entirety.

BACKGROUND

DNA sequencing technologies developed over the last decade haverevolutionized the biological sciences, e.g. Lerner et al, The Auk, 127:4-15 (2010); Metzker, Nature Review Genetics, 11: 31-46 (2010); Holt etal. Genome Research, 18: 839-846 (2(2008); and have the potential torevolutionize many aspects of medical practice, e.g. Voelkerding et al.Clinical Chemistry, 55: 641-658 (2009); Anderson et al, Genes, 1: 38-69(2010); Freeman et al, Genome Research, 19: 1817-1824 (2009); Tucker etal, Am. J. Human Genet., 85: 142-154 (2009). However, to realize suchpotential there are still a host of challenges that must be addressed,including reduction of per-run sequencing cost, simplification of samplepreparation, reduction of run time, increasing read lengths, improvingdata analysis, and the like, e.g. Baker, Nature Methods, 7: 495-498(2010); Kircher et al. Bioessays, 32: 524-536 (2010); Turner et al,Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics, 10: 263-284 (2009). Singlemolecule sequencing using nanopores may address some of thesechallenges. e.g., Maitra et al. Electrophoresis, 33: 3418-3428 (2012);Venkatesan et al, Nature Nanotechnology. 6: 615-624 (2011); however,this approach has its own set of technical difficulties, such as,reliable nanopore fabrication, control of DNA translocation rates,nucleotide discrimination, detection of electrical signals from largearrays of nanopore sensors, and the like. e.g. Branton et al, NatureBiotechnology, 26(10): 1146-1153 (2008); Venkatesan et al (cited above).

Optical detection of nucleotides has been proposed as a potentialsolution to some of the technical difficulties in the field of nanoporesequencing, e.g. Huber, U.S. Pat. No. 8,771,491; Russell, U.S. Pat. No.6,528,258; Pittaro, U.S. patent publication 2005.0095599; Joyce, U.S.patent publication 2006/0019259; Chan, U.S. Pat. No. 6,355,420; McNallyet al, Nano Lett., 10(6): 2237-2244 (2010); and the like. However,optically-based nanopore sequencing has not been realized for a varietyof reasons, including the lack of suitable fabrication techniques andunderstanding of how elements of such systems interact.

In view of the above, it would be advantageous to nanopore sensortechnology in general and its particular applications, such as opticallybased nanopore sequencing, if there were available materials andconfigurations of optical elements that permitted successful opticalsensing and analysis of analytes, such as sequences of nucleic acids.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is directed to methods, kits and systems foroptical detection and analysis of polymers, such as polynucleotides, inmicrofluidic and/or nanofluidic devices: in particular, the inventionincludes methods and systems using nanopores for determining nucleotidesequences of nucleic acids.

In one aspect, the invention include a method for determining a monomersequence of a polymer comprising the following steps: (a) translocatinga polymer through a nanopore, wherein monomers of the polymer arelabeled with fluorescent labels such that in free solution fluorescentlabels of adjacent monomers substantially quench each other'sfluorescence emissions (that is, such labels are in a “quenched state”or “quenched configuration”) and wherein the nanopore constrainsfluorescent labels within its bore into a constrained state such that nodetectable fluorescent signal, or substantially no detectablefluorescent signal, is generated; (b) exciting the fluorescent label ofeach monomer upon exiting the nanopore and prior to formation of aquenched configuration with an adjacent fluorescent label; (c) measuringa fluorescent signal generated by the exiting fluorescent label toidentify the monomer to which the fluorescent label is attached; and (d)determining a monomer sequence of the polymer from a sequence offluorescent signals.

In another aspect, the invention includes a method of determining anucleotide sequence of a at least one polynucleotide comprising thesteps of: (a) translocating a at least one single strandedpolynucleotide through a nanopore, wherein nucleotides of the singlestranded polynucleotide are labeled with fluorescent labels such that infree solution fluorescent labels of adjacent nucleotides are in aquenched state quenching fluorescence emissions of the parts of thepolynucleotide outside the nanopore (that is, parts of thepolynucleotide that have not yet entered or that have already exited thenanopore), and wherein the nanopore forces the fluorescent labels withinthe nanopore into a constrained state wherein substantially nodetectable signal is generated; (b) exciting the fluorescent label ofeach nucleotide upon exiting the nanopore and prior to forming aquenched state with an fluorescent label of an adjacent nucleotide; (c)measuring a fluorescent signal generated by the exiting fluorescentlabel to identify the nucleotide to which the fluorescent label isattached; and (d) determining a nucleotide sequence of thepolynucleotide from a sequence of fluorescent signals. In someembodiments of this aspect, nucleotides of the polynucleotides arelabeled with second members of a FRET pair, each second member producinga FRET signal indicative of the nucleotide to which it is attached, sothat nucleotides of the polynucleotide pass in sequence by a firstmember of the FRET pair positioned adjacent to the exit of the nanoporeso that each second member upon exiting the nanopore passes within aFRET distance of the first member of the FRET pair.

In some embodiments, nanopores are fabricated in a solid phase membranesuch that first members of a FRET pair are attached to the solid phasemembrane adjacent to substantially each nanopore. In other embodiments,nanopores comprise protein nanopores disposed in apertures fabricated ina solid phase membrane wherein first members of a FRET pair are attachedto the protein nanopore.

The present invention is exemplified in a number of implementations andapplications, some of which are summarized below and throughout thespecification.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1A illustrates schematically an exemplary embodiment of theinvention.

FIG. 1B illustrates expected signals for different times toself-quenching after a fluorescent label or acceptor exits a nanopore.

FIG. 1C illustrates expected signals for specified time toself-quenching and compares to recorded signal from a labeled targetpolynucleotide translocating a nanopore.

FIGS. 2A-2C illustrate one embodiment of a hybrid biosensor.

FIG. 2D illustrate an embodiment of the device of the invention withpositioning of a member of a FRET pair using oligonucleotidehybridization.

FIG. 2E illustrates one embodiment of a hybrid nanopore where thesurface of the solid state membrane (201) coated with a hydrophobiclayer (202) to which a lipid layer is adhered (203). The lipids forms agigaohm seal with the inserted pore protein.

FIGS. 3A-3H show reaction diagrams of various orthogonal linkingchemistries for attaching fluorescent labels to bases ofpolynucleotides.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

While the invention is amenable to various modifications and alternativeforms, specifics thereof have been shown by way of example in thedrawings and will be described in detail. It should be understood,however, that the intention is not to limit the invention to theparticular embodiments described. On the contrary, the intention is tocover all modifications, equivalents, and alternatives falling withinthe spirit and scope of the invention. For example, particular nanoporetypes and numbers, particular labels, FRET pairs, detection schemes,fabrication approaches of the invention are shown for purposes ofillustration. It should be appreciated, however, that the disclosure isnot intended to be limiting in this respect, as other types ofnanopores, arrays of nanopores, and other fabrication technologies maybe utilized to implement various aspects of the systems discussedherein. Guidance for aspects of the invention is found in many availablereferences and treatises well known to those with ordinary skill in theart, including, for example, Cao, Nanostructures & Nanomaterials(Imperial College Press. 2004); Levinson, Principles of Lithography.Second Edition (SPIE Press, 2005); Doering and Nishi, Editors, Handbookof Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology, Second Edition (CRC Press,2007); Sawyer et al, Electrochemistry for Chemists, 2^(nd) edition(Wiley Interscience, 1995) Bard and Faulkner. Electrochemical Methods:Fundamentals and Applications, 2^(nd) edition (Wiley. 2000); Lakowicz.Principles of Fluorescence Spectroscopy, 3^(rd) edition (Springer.2006); Hermanson, Bioconjugate Techniques, Second Edition (AcademicPress. 2008); and the like, which relevant parts are hereby incorporatedby reference.

In one aspect, the invention relates to the use of nanopores,fluorescent quenching, and fluorescent signaling to sequentiallyidentify monomers of polymer analytes. Such analysis of polymer analytesmay be carried out on single polymer analytes or on pluralities ofpolymer analytes in parallel at the same time, for example, by using anarray of nanopores. In some embodiments, monomers are labeled withfluorescent labels that are capable of at least three states whileattached to a target polymer: (i) A substantially quenched state whereinfluorescence of an attached fluorescent label is quenched by afluorescent label on an immediately adjacent monomer: for example, afluorescent label attached to a polymer in accordance with the inventionis substantially quenched when the labeled polymer is free inconventional aqueous solution for studying and manipulating the polymer.(ii) A sterically constrained state wherein a labeled polymer istranslocating through a nanopore such that the free-solution movementsor alignments of an attached fluorescent label is disrupted or limitedso that there is little or no detectable fluorescent signal generatedfrom the fluorescent label. (iii) A transition state wherein afluorescent label attached to a polymer transitions from the stericallyconstrained state to the quenched state as the fluorescent label exitsthe nanopore (during a “transition interval”) while the polymertranslocates through the nanopore. In part, the invention is anapplication of the discovery that during the transition interval afluorescent label (on an otherwise substantially fully labeled andself-quenched polymer) is capable of generating a detectable fluorescentsignal. Without the intention of being limited by any theory underlyingthis discovery, it is believed that the fluorescent signal generatedduring the transition interval is due to the presence of a freelyrotatable dipole in the fluorescent label emerging from the nanopore,which renders the fluorescent label temporarily capable of generating afluorescent signal, for example, after direct excitation or via FRET. Inboth the sterically constrained state as well as the quenched state, thedipoles are limited in their rotational freedom thereby reducing orlimiting the number of emitted photons. In some embodiments, the polymeris a polynucleotide, usually a single stranded polynucleotide, such as.DNA or RNA, but especially single stranded DNA. In some embodiments, theinvention includes a method for determining a nucleotide sequence of apolynucleotide by recording signals generated by attached fluorescentlabels as they exit a nanopore one at a time as a polynucleotidetranslocates through the nanopore. Upon exit, each attached fluorescentlabel transitions during a transition interval from a constrained statein the nanopore to a quenched state on the polynucleotide in freesolution. In other words, in some embodiments, a step of the method ofthe invention comprises exciting each fluorescent label as it istransitioning from a constrained state in the nanopore to a quenchedstate on the polymer in free solution. As mentioned above, during thistransition interval or period the fluorescent label is capable ofemitting a detectable fluorescent signal indicative of the nucleotide itis attached to.

In some embodiments. “substantially quenched” as used above means afluorescent label generates a fluorescent signal at least thirty percentreduced from a signal generated under the same conditions, but withoutadjacent mutually quenching labels. In some embodiments, “substantiallyquenched” as used above means a fluorescent label generates afluorescent signal at least fifty percent reduced from a signalgenerated under the same conditions, but without adjacent mutuallyquenching labels.

In some embodiments, a nucleotide sequence of a target polynucleotide isdetermined by carrying out four separate reactions in which copies ofthe target polynucleotide have each of its four different kinds ofnucleotide (A, C, G and T) labeled with a single fluorescent label. In avariant of such embodiments, a nucleotide sequence of a targetpolynucleotide is determined by carrying out four separate reactions inwhich copies of the target polynucleotide have each of its fourdifferent kinds of nucleotide (A, C, G and T) labeled with onefluorescent label while at the same time the other nucleotides on thesame target polynucleotide are labeled with a second fluorescent label.For example, if a first fluorescent label is attached to A's of thetarget polynucleotide in a first reaction, then a second fluorescentlabel is attached to C's, G's and T's (i.e. to the “not-A” nucleotides)of the target polynucleotides in the first reaction. Likewise, incontinuance of the example, in a second reaction, the first label isattached to C's of the target polynucleotide and the second fluorescentlabel is attached to A's, G's and T's (i.e. to the “not-C” nucleotides)of the target polynucleotide. And so on, for nucleotides G and T.

The same labeling scheme may be expressed in terms of conventionalterminology for subsets of nucleotide types; thus, in the above example,in a first reaction, a first fluorescent label is attached to A's and asecond fluorescent label is attached to B's: in a second reaction, afirst fluorescent label is attached to C's and a second fluorescentlabel is attached to D's; in a third reaction, a first fluorescent labelis attached to G's and a second fluorescent label is attached to H's;and in a fourth reaction, a first fluorescent label is attached to T'sand a second fluorescent label is attached to V's.

In some embodiments, a polymer, such as a polynucleotide or peptide, maybe labeled with a single fluorescent label attached to a single kind ofmonomer, for example, every T (or substantially every T) of apolynucleotide is labeled with a fluorescent label, e.g. a cyanine dye.In such embodiments, a collection, or sequence, of fluorescent signalsfrom the polymer may form a signature or fingerprint for the particularpolymer. In some such embodiments, such fingerprints may or may notprovide enough information for a sequence of monomers to be determined.

In some embodiments, a feature of the invention is the labeling ofsubstantially all monomers of a polymer analyte with fluorescent dyes orlabels that are members of a mutually quenching set. The use of the term“substantially all” in reference to labeling polymer analytes is toacknowledge that chemical and enzymatic labeling techniques aretypically less than 100 percent efficient. In some embodiments,“substantially all” means at least 80 percent of all monomer havefluorescent labels attached. In other embodiments, “substantially all”means at least 90 percent of all monomer have fluorescent labelsattached. In other embodiments. “substantially all” means at least 95percent of all monomer have fluorescent labels attached. Mutuallyquenching sets of fluorescent dyes have the following properties: (i)each member quenches fluorescence of every member (for example, by FRETor by static or contact mechanisms), and (ii) each member generates adistinct fluorescent signal when excited and when in a non-quenchedstate. That is, if a mutually quenching set consists of two dyes, D1 andD2, then (i) D1 is self-quenched (e.g. by contact quenching with anotherD1 molecule) and it is quenched by D2 (e.g. by contact quenching) and(ii) D2 is self-quenched (e.g. by contact quenching with another D2molecule) and it is quenched by D1 (e.g. by contact quenching). Guidancefor selecting fluorescent dyes or labels for mutually quenching sets maybe found in the following references, which are incorporated herein byreference: Johansson. Methods in Molecular Biology. 335: 17-29 (2006);Marras et al. Nucleic Acids Research, 30: e122 (2002); and the like. Insome embodiments, members of a mutually quenching set comprise organicfluorescent dyes that components or moieties capable of stackinginteractions, such as aromatic ring structures. Exemplary mutuallyquenching sets of fluorescent dyes, or labels, may be selected fromrhodamine dyes, fluorescein dyes and cyanine dyes. In one embodiment, amutually quenching set may comprise the rhodamine dye, TAMRA, and thefluorescein dye, FAM. In another embodiment, mutually quenching sets offluorescent dyes may be formed by selecting two or more dyes from thegroup consisting of Oregon Green 488. Fluorescein-EX, fluoresceinisothiocyanate, Rhodamine Red-X, Lissamine rhodamine B, Calcein,Fluorescein, Rhodamine, one or more BODIPY dyes, Texas Red, Oregon Green514, and one or more Alexa Fluors. Representative BODIPY dyes includeBODIPY FL. BODIPY R6G, BODIPY TMR, BODIPY 581/591, BODIPY TR, BODIPY630/650 and BODIPY 650/665. Representative Alexa Fluors include AlexaFluor 350, 405, 430, 488, 500, 514, 532, 546, 555, 568, 594, 610, 633,635, 647, 660, 680, 700, 750 and 790.

As above, in some embodiments, a monomer sequence of a target polymer isdetermined by carrying out separate reactions (one for each kind ofmonomer) in which copies of the target polymer have each different kindof monomer labeled with a mutually- or self-quenching fluorescent label.In other embodiments, a monomer sequence of a target polymer isdetermined by carrying out separate reactions (one for each kind ofmonomer) in which copies of the target polymer have each different kindof monomer labeled with a different mutually quenching fluorescent labelselected from the same mutually quenching set. In embodiments in which amutually quenching set contains only two dyes, then a selected monomer(say, monomer X) is labeled with a first mutually quenching dye andevery other kind of monomer (i.e., not-monomer X) is labeled with asecond mutually quenching dye from the same set. Thus, steps of theembodiment generate a sequence of two different fluorescent signals, oneindicating monomer X and another indicating not-monomer X.

In some embodiments, a single fluorescent label (for example, attachedto a single kind of monomer in a polymer comprising multiple kinds ofmonomers) may be used that is self-quenching when attached to adjacentmonomers (of the same kind) on a polymer, such as adjacent nucleotidesof a polynucleotide. Exemplary self-quenching fluorescent labelsinclude, but are not limited to, Oregon Green 488, fluorescein-EX, FITC,Rhodamine Red-X, Lissamine rhodamine B, calcein, fluorescein, rhodamine,BODIPYS, and Texas Red, e.g. which are disclosed in Molecular ProbesHandbook, 11^(th) Edition (2010).

In some embodiments, fluorescent labels are members of a FRET pair. AFRET pair generally is one or more FRET donors and one or more FRETacceptors where each donor is capable of a FRET reaction with eachacceptor. In one aspect, this means that the donors of the FRET pairhave an emission spectrum that substantially overlaps the absorptionspectrum of the acceptors. In another aspect, the transition dipole ofthe donor and the acceptor have to be aligned in a way that allowsefficient energy transfer. In some aspects, the invention in part isbased on the discovery and appreciation of a fluorescence, particularly,FRET suppressing property of nanopores and the application of thisproperty to enable detection of labeled polymers translocating through ananopore. It is believed, although the invention is not intended to belimited thereby, that a nanopore may be selected with a bore dimensionedso that a FRET pair label cannot orient to engage in a FRET interactionwhile translocating through the nanopore. The dipoles of the labels ofthe polynucleotide in the bore of the nanopore are constrained in theirrotational freedom based on the limited diameter of the nanopore. Thisreduction in dipole alignment with the alignment of the correspondingFRET pair attached to the nanopore limits the FRET efficiencydramatically. Labeled polynucleotides can engage in a FRET interactionafter exiting the nanopore at which point the FRET acceptor or donor onthe polymer (e.g. polynucleotide) regains rotational freedom whichallows for a FRET event.

The invention may have a wide range of embodiments depending on the typeof analytes being detected, the types of donors and acceptors employed,the physical arrangement of the nanopore, donors and acceptors, whetheranalytes are labeled with donors or with acceptors, and the like. Insome embodiments, analytes measured by the invention areacceptor-labeled polymers, especially acceptor-labeled polynucleotides.In one species of the latter embodiment, different nucleotides of apolynucleotide analyte are labeled with one or more different kinds ofacceptors, so that a nucleotide sequence of the polynucleotide may bedetermined from measuring FRET signals generated as it translocatesthrough a nanopore. In another embodiment, analytes measured by theinvention are donor-labeled polymers, especially donor-labeledpolynucleotides. The sequence of the polynucleotide may be determinedfrom measuring FRET signals as it translocates through a nanopore. Inyet another embodiment of the present invention, at least one of thefour nucleotides of a polynucleotide analyte is labeled with a member ofa FRET pair. The positions of the labeled nucleotides in thepolynucleotide are determined by translocating the labeledpolynucleotide through a labeled nanopore and measuring FRET events. Bylabeling the remaining nucleotides of the same polynucleotide sample andsubsequently translocating said samples through a labeled nanopore,sub-sequences of the polynucleotide are generated. Such sub-sequencescan be aligned resulting in a full sequence of the polynucleotide.

Some of the above aspects and embodiments of the invention areillustrated diagrammatically in FIG. 1A. Polymer analyte (1000), such asa polynucleotide, is driven, e.g. electrophoretically, through nanopore(1002), which constrains the conformation of polymer (1000) so that itsmonomeric units translocate through the nanopore in the same order astheir primary sequence in the polymer. In the embodiment shown in FIG.1A, fluorescent labels are assumed to be members of FRET pairs, but thisis not intended to limit the present invention: fluorescent labels mayalso include fluorescent labels that are directly excited, for examplewith a laser emitting at an appropriate wavelength, to generate afluorescent signal.

As mentioned above, whenever an acceptor-labeled monomeric unit iswithin the bore of nanopore (1002). FRET interactions between suchacceptors and the donors of its FRET pair are suppressed becauseacceptors are in a constrained state (1014). Such suppression typicallymeans that no detectable FRET signal is produced even if such acceptorsare within a FRET distance of a donor, for example, due to unfavorableorientation of the acceptor and donor dipoles, or due to contactquenching, or like mechanism. On the other hand, when anacceptor-labeled monomeric unit emerges from the bore of, or exits, thenanopore into transition zone (1008), FRET interaction (1010) occurs andFRET emission (1016) is produced and detected by detector (1018) untilthe acceptor enters a self-quenching state (101) with an adjacentacceptor and as the distance between the acceptor and donor increaseswith the movement of polymer (1000) out of FRET interaction distance.Signal (1022) is produced by a single acceptor as it moves throughtransition zone (1008). Transition zone (1008), which is a spatialregion immediately adjacent to exit (1015) of nanopore (1002), isdefined by several factors, including the speed of the translocation ofpolymer (1000) through nanopore (1002), the vibrational and rotationalmobility of the fluorescent labels, the physiochemical nature of thefluorescent labels, and the like. In some embodiments, transition zone(1008) may be defined by a perpendicular distance (1017) between theexit (1015) of nanopore (1002) and the point at which an exitingfluorescent label takes on a quenched configuration with an adjacentfluorescent label. In some embodiments, transition zone (1008) may bedefined by its corresponding transition interval, or the time it takes afluorescent label to travel distance (1017). In some embodiments,transition distance (1017) is in the range of from 20 to 50) angstroms;in other embodiments, transition distance is in the range of from 20 to40 angstroms. In some embodiments, corresponding transition intervalsare in the range of from 0.2 to 2.0 msec; in still other embodiments,transition intervals are in the range of from 0.2 to 1.0 msec. In FIG.1A, only one type of monomeric unit, illustrated as solid circles (1004)carries a first fluorescent label (designated as “a”); the rest of themonomeric units, illustrated as speckled circles (1006), carry a secondfluorescent label (designated as “b”). In this embodiment, firstfluorescent labels quench adjacent first fluorescent labels and adjacentsecond fluorescent labels; likewise, second fluorescent labels quenchadjacent first fluorescent labels and adjacent second fluorescentlabels; moreover, the first and second fluorescent labels generate FRETsignals that are distinguishable from one another, for example, recordedsignal (1022) for label “a” and recorded signal (1023) for label “b” inFIG. 1A, so that each fluorescent label (and hence, monomer) may beidentified by a signal detected by detector (1018).

As illustrated in FIG. 1B, the degree to which successive signals (1022)or (1023) are resolved by detector (1018) depend at least in part on thetranslocation speed of polymer (1000). Curve A and curve B of FIG. 1Billustrate results from simulations of fluorescent signal generationbased on the Forrester equation under different auto-quenchingconditions. As illustrated, under both conditions readily discernablesignals are generated. In FIG. 1C, a further simulation showing signalpeaks (1033) is compared to actual data (1035) generated as afluorescently labeled single stranded DNA analyte translocated through ananopore. The single stranded DNA used to generate the data (1035) was200 nt long and each cytosine was exchanged with a fluorescently labeledcounterpart. The labeled DNA was translocated through a continuouslyexcited hybrid nanopore at an applied potential of 300 mV and FRETevents were captured using a cmos camera operated at 2 kHz acquisitionrate. At the 3′end of the labeled DNA a short homopolymer stretch of 3consecutive cytosines shows an elevated baseline fluorescent withclearly distinguishable peaks for each of the three cytosines. Similarto the modeled data the fluorescent trace in the inset of FIG. 1C showsan elevated baseline fluorescence and individual peaks for each memberof the homopolymer stretch. The sequence of labeled DNA is as follows(SEQ ID NO: 1):

5′- GCT ATG TGG CGC GGT ATT ATC AAG AAG GAG ACTGAG AGG AGA GTA GGA GCG AGA AGG AAA CGA GAG TGAGAG GAG AGT AGG AGC AAG AAG GAA ACG AGA GTG AGAGGA GAG TAG GAG CAA GAA GGA AAC GAG AGT GAG AGGAGA GTA GGA GCA AGA AGG AAA CTG AGA GGA GAG TAGGAG TTA CTC TAG CTT CCC GGC AA -3′

In some embodiments, a nanopore is hybrid nanopore comprising a protein,nanopore inserted into a pore of a solid phase membrane, as describedmore fully below, in hybrid nanopores, a first member of a FRET pair maybe attached directly to the protein nanopore, or alternatively, directlyto the solid phase membrane using conventional linking chemistries, suchas “click.” chemistries, e.g. Kolb et al, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 4):2004-2021 (2001), or the like. In one embodiment, a first member of aFRET pair is attached directly or indirectly to the protein nanopore,for example, as discussed it) reference to FIG. 2D. In anotherembodiment, the first member of the FRET pair is a donor and a quantumdot. Quantum dots are typically much larger than acceptors, especiallyacceptors that are organic dyes, which typically have molecular weightsin the range of from 200 to 2000 daltons.

Nanopores and Nanopore Sequencing

Nanopores used with the invention may be solid-state nanopores, proteinnanopores, or hybrid nanopores comprising protein nanopores or organicnanotubes such as carbon nanotubes, configured in a solid-statemembrane, or like framework, important features of nanopores include (i)constraining analytes, particularly polymer analytes, to pass through adetection zone in sequence, or in other words, so that monomers pass thedetection zone one at a time, or in single file, (ii) compatibility witha translocating means, that is, whatever method is used to drive ananalyte through a nanopore, such as an electric field, and, (iii)suppression of fluorescent signals within the lumen, or bore, of thenanopore, for example, by contact quenching, or the like, Nanopores usedin connection with the methods and devices of the invention may be usedsingly or in the form of arrays, either a regular array, such as arectilinear array of a plurality nanopores in a planar support ormembrane, or a random array, for example, where a plurality of nanoporesare spaced in accordance with a Poisson distribution in a planar supportor membrane.

Nanopores may be fabricated in a variety of materials including but notlimited to, silicon nitride (Si₃N₄), silicon dioxide (SiO₂), and thelike. The fabrication and operation of nanopores for analyticalapplications, such as DMA sequencing, are disclosed in the followingexemplary references that are incorporated by reference: Russell, U.S.Pat. No. 6,528,258; Feier, U.S. Pat. No. 4,161,690; Ling, U.S. Pat. No.7,678,562; Hu et al, U.S. Pat. No. 7,397,232; Golovchenko et al, U.S.Pat. No. 6,464,842; Chu et. al, U.S. Pat. No. 5,798,042; Saner et al,U.S. Pat. No. 7,001,792; Su et al, U.S. Pat. No. 7,744,816; Church etal, U.S. Pat. No. 5,795,782; Bayley et al, U.S. Pat. No. 6,426,231;Akeson et al, U.S. Pat. No. 7,189,503; Bayley et al, U.S. Pat. No.6,916,665; Akeson et al, U.S. Pat. No. 6,267,872; Meller et al, U.S.patent publication 2009/0029477; Howorka et al. International patentpublication WO2009/007743; Brown et al, International patent publicationWO2011/067559; Meller et al, International patent publicationWO2009/020682; Polonsky et al, International patent publicationWO2008/092760; Van der Zaag et al, International patent publicationWO2010/007537; Yan et al, Nano Letters, 5(6): 1129-1134 (2005); Iqbal etal, Nature Nanotechnology, 2: 243-248 (2007); Wanunu et al, NanoLetters, 7(6): 1580-1585 (2007); Dekker, Nature Nanotechnology. 2:209-215 (2007); Storm et al. Nature Materials, 2: 537-540 (2003); Wu etal, Electrophoresis, 29(13): 2754-2759 (2008); Nakane et al,Electrophoresis, 23: 2592-2601 (2002); Zhe et al, J. Micromech.Microeng., 17: 304-313 (2007); Henriquez et al, The Analyst. 129:478-482 (2004); Jagtiani et al, J. Micromech. Microeng., 16: 1530-1539(2006); Nakane et al, J. Phys. Condens. Matter. 15 R1365-R1393 (2003);DeBlois et al, Rev. Sci. Instruments, 41(7): 909-916 (1970); Clarke etal, Nature Nanotechnology, 4(4): 265-270 (2009); Bayley et al, U.S.patent publication 2003/0215881; and the like.

Briefly, in one aspect, a 1-50 nm channel is formed through a substrate,usually a membrane, through which an analyte, such as single strandedDNA, is induced to translocate. The solid-state approach of generatingnanopores offers robustness and durability as well as the ability totune the size and shape of the nanopore, the ability to fabricatehigh-density arrays of nanopores on a wafer scale, superior mechanical,chemical and thermal characteristics compared with lipid-based systems,and the possibility of integrating with electronic or optical readouttechniques. Biological nanopores on the other hand provide reproduciblenarrow bores, or lumens, especially in the 1-10 nanometer range, as wellas techniques for tailoring the physical and/or chemical properties ofthe nanopore and for directly or indirectly attaching groups orelements, such as fluorescent labels, which may be FRET donors oracceptors, by conventional protein engineering methods. Proteinnanopores typically rely on delicate lipid bilayers for mechanicalsupport, and the fabrication of solid-state nanopores with precisedimensions remains challenging. Combining solid-state nanopores with abiological nanopore overcomes some of these shortcomings, especially theprecision of a biological pore protein with the stability of a solidstate nanopore. For optical read out techniques a hybrid nanoporeprovides a precise location of the nanopore which simplifies die dataacquisition greatly. The lateral diffusion of nanopore proteins insertedin a lipid bilayer makes an optical detection challenging. Since thebiological pan (i.e. protein nanopore part) of a hybrid nanopore doesnot rely on the insertion in a lipid bilayer, the degrees of freedom formodifications made to such a protein are greatly increased e.g. agenetically modified nanopore protein that does not spontaneously insertin a lipid bilayer may still be used as a protein component of a hybridnanopore. Also, bilayer-destabilizing agents such as quantum dots may beused to label a protein component of a hybrid nanopore.

In one embodiment, the invention is directed to a method for analyzingone or more polymer analytes, such as determining a nucleotide sequenceof a polynucleotide, which comprises the following steps: (a)translocating a polymer analyte through a nanopore having a bore and anexit, the polymer analyte comprising a sequence of monomers, whereinsubstantially each monomer is labeled with a fluorescent label such thatfluorescent labels of adjacent monomers are in a quenched state byself-quenching one another outside of the nanopore and fluorescentlabels are in a sterically constrained state and incapable of generatinga detectable fluorescent signal inside of the nanopore; (b) excitingeach fluorescent label at the exit of the nanopore as it transitionsfrom a sterically constrained state to a quenched state so that afluorescent signal is generated which is indicative of the monomer towhich it is attached; (c) detecting the fluorescent signal to identifythe monomer. As used herein. “substantially every”. “substantially all”,or like terms, in reference to labeling monomers, particularlynucleotides, acknowledges that chemical labeling procedures may notresult in complete labeling of every monomer: to the extent practicable,the terms comprehend that labeling reactions in connection with theinvention are continued to completion; in some embodiments, suchcompleted labeling reactions include labeling at least fifty percent ofthe monomers; in other embodiments, such labeling reactions includelabeling at least eighty percent of the monomers; in other embodiments,such labeling reactions include labeling at least ninety-five percent ofthe monomers; in other embodiments, such labeling reactions includelabeling at least ninety-nine percent of the monomers.

In another embodiment, the invention is directed to a method foranalyzing one or more polymer analytes comprising the following steps:(a) attaching a fluorescent label substantially every monomer of one ormore polymer analytes such that fluorescent labels of adjacent monomersare in a quenched state. (b) translocating the polymer analytes throughnanopores so that monomers of each polymer analyte traverses thenanopore in single file and wherein each nanopore has a bore and anexit, the bore sterically constraining the fluorescent labels in aconstrained state so that no fluorescent signal is generated therefrominside the bore; (c) exciting during a transition interval eachfluorescent label at the exit of the nanopore as each fluorescent labeltransitions from a sterically constrained state to a quenched state,thereby generating a fluorescent signal that is indicative of themonomer to which it is attached; (c) detecting the fluorescent signal toidentify the monomer.

In another embodiment the invention is directed to a device foranalyzing one or more labeled polymer analytes, such as a device fordetermining a nucleotide sequence of one or more labeled polynucleotideanalytes, such device comprising the following elements: (a) a solidphase membrane separating a first chamber and a second chamber, thesolid phase membrane having at least one nanopore fluidly connecting thefirst chamber and the second chamber through a bore or lumen, the boreor lumen having a cross-sectional dimension such that labels of alabeled polymer translocating therethrough are sterically constrained sothat detectable signals are not generated, and so that the labels ofadjacent monomers of the labeled polymer are self-quenching; (b) anexcitation source for exciting each label when it exits the nanopore andenters the second chamber so that a signal is generated indicative of amonomer to which the label is attached; and (c) a detector forcollecting at least a portion of the signal generated by each excitedlabel: and (d) identifying the monomer to which the excited label isattached by the collected signal.

In another embodiment, the invention is directed to a system foranalyzing polymers comprising a polymer comprising monomers that aresubstantially all labeled with a mutually quenching dye set and ananopore device for sequentially detecting optical signals from the dyesof the mutually quenching dye set which are attached to the polymer.Such an embodiment for determining a sequence of a polynucleotide maycomprise the following elements: (a) a solid phase membrane separating afirst chamber and a second chamber, the solid phase membrane having atleast one aperture connecting the first chamber and the second chamber,and having a hydrophobic coating on at least one surface: (b) a lipidlayer disposed on the hydrophobic coating: (c) a protein nanoporeimmobilized in the aperture, the protein nanopore having a bore with anexit, and the protein nanopore interacting with the lipid layer to forma seal with the solid phase membrane in the aperture so that fluidcommunication between the first chamber and the second chamber occurssolely through the bore of the protein nanopore, and the proteinnanopore being cross-sectionally dimensioned so that nucleotides of thepolynucleotide pass through the exit of the bore in sequence and so thatfluorescent labels attached to the polynucleotide are stericallyconstrained so that generation of fluorescent signal therein isinhibited or prevented; and (d) a first member of the FRET pair attachedto the solid phase membrane or the protein nanopore, so that whenevernucleotides of the polynucleotide emerge from the bore, a plurality ofthe nucleotides are within a FRET distance of the first member of theFRET pair. In some embodiments, the first member of the FRET pair is aquantum dot that functions as a FRET donor.

In some embodiments, the hydrophobic coating is optional in that thesurface of the solid phase membrane is sufficiently hydrophobic itselfso that a lipid layer adheres to it stably. The at least one aperturewill have an inner surface, or wall connected to, or contiguous with thesurfaces of the solid phase membrane. In some embodiments, the at leastone aperture will be a plurality of apertures, and the plurality ofapertures may be arranged as a regular array, such as a rectilineararray of apertures, the spacing of which depending in part on the numberand kind of FRET pairs employed and the optical detection system used.Each of the apertures has a diameter, which in some embodiments is suchthat a protein nanopore is substantially immobilized therein. In someembodiments, substantially immobilized means that a protein nanopore maymove no more than 5 nm in the plane of the solid phase membrane relativeto the wall of the aperture. In another embodiment, substantiallyimmobilized means that a protein nanopore may move no more than 5 nm inthe plane of the solid phase membrane relative to the wall of theaperture. The protein nanopores each have a bore, or passage, or lumen,which permits fluid communication between the first and second chamberswhen the protein nanopore is immobilized in an aperture. Generally, thebore is coaxially aligned with the aperture. One function of thehydrophobic layer is to provide a surface to retain lipids in and/orimmediately adjacent to the at least one aperture. Such lipids, in turn,permit disposition and immobilization of a protein nanopore within anaperture in a functional conformation and in a manner that forms a fluidseal with the wall of the aperture. In some embodiments, such seal alsoprevents electrical current passing between the first and secondchambers around the protein nanopore. In some embodiments, chargedanalytes are disposed in an electrolyte solution in the first chamberand are translocated through the bore(s) of the protein nanopore(s) intoan electrolytic solution in the second chamber by establishing anelectrical field across the solid phase membrane. For convenience ofmanufacture, in some embodiments the hydrophobic coating will be on onesurface of the solid phase membrane and the wall(s) of the aperture(s).

In some embodiments of the devices of the invention, the at least onenanopore in a solid phase membrane is a plurality of nanopores, or ananopore array: in some embodiments such nanopores are spaced regularlyin the solid phase membrane with their bores oriented perpendicularly tothe plane of the solid phase membrane. In some embodiments, nanoporesare spaced in a rectilinear pattern in the solid phase membrane: inother embodiments, nanopores are spaced in a random pattern in the solidphase membrane; in some embodiments, such random pattern is Poissondistributed. In some embodiments, nanopores are regularly spaced in asolid phase membrane with a minimal inter-nanopore distance of at least10 nm; in other embodiments, such minimal inter-nanopore distance is 50nm; in other embodiments, such minimal inter-nanopore distance is 100nm; in other embodiments, such minimal inter-nanopore distance is 200nm; in other embodiments, such minimal inter-nanopore distance is 500nm.

In some embodiments, methods and devices of the invention comprise asolid phase membrane, such as a SiN membrane, having an array ofapertures therethrough providing communication between a first chamberand a second chamber (also sometimes referred to as a “cis chamber” anda “trans chamber”) and supporting a lipid bilayer on a surface facingthe second, or trans, chamber. In some embodiments, diameters of theaperture in such a solid phase membrane may be in the range of 10 to 200nm, or in the range of 20 to 100 nm. In some embodiments, such solidphase membranes further include protein nanopores inserted into thelipid bilayer in regions where such bilayer spans the apertures on thesurface facing the trans chamber. In some embodiments, such proteinnanopores are inserted from the cis side of the solid phase membraneusing techniques described herein. In some embodiments, such proteinnanopores have a structure identical to, or similar to, α-hemolysin inthat it comprises a barrel, or bore, along an axis and at one end has a“cap” structure and at the other end has a “stem” structure (using theterminology from Song et al, Science. 274: 1859-1866 (1996)). In someembodiments using such protein nanopores, insertion into the lipidbilayer results in the protein nanopore being oriented so that its capstructure is exposed to the cis chamber and its stem structure isexposed to the trans chamber.

In some embodiments, methods and devices of the invention comprisedroplet interface bilayers, either as single droplets or as arraysdroplets, for example, as disclosed in Bayley et al, U.S. patentpublication 2014/0356289: Huang et al. Nature Nanotechnology,10.1038/nnano.2015.189. [Epub ahead of print]; or like reference, whichare hereby incorporated by reference. Briefly, protein nanopores (1.2nM) are placed in a 200-350 nl droplet (for example, 1.32 M KCl, 8.8 mMHEPES, 0.4 mM EDTA, pH 7.0 (αHL) or 8.0 (MspA), and incubated in, forexample, 3 mM 1,2-diphytanoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DPhPC) inhexadecane to form a lipid monolayer coating. A droplet may then betransferred by pipetting onto a coverslip in a measurement chamber, forexample, that permits application of voltages to move analytes andoptical detection, for example, by TIRF. The coverslip may be spincoated (3.000 r.p.m., 30 s) with a thin layer (˜200) nm) of agarose(0.66 M CaCl2, 8.8 mM HEPES, pH 7.0 (αHL)/8.0 (MspA)) and subsequentlyincubated with 3 mM DPhPC in hexadecane. On contact with the monolayeron the agarose, a lipid coated droplet spontaneously forms a dropletinterface bilayer. A ground electrode (Ag/AgCl) may be inserted into thedroplet, with a corresponding active electrode (Ag/AgCl) in thesubstrate agarose. Voltage protocols may be applied with a patch clampamplifier (for example, Axopatch 200B. Molecular Devices). Nanoporespresent in the droplet spontaneously insert into the droplet interfacebilayer, and the ion flux may be detected both electrically and/oroptically (for example, by way of an ion-sensitive dye, such as Fluo-8,or the like).

In some embodiments, the solid phase membrane may be treated with a lowenergy ion beam to bleach its autofluorescence, e.g. as described inHuber et al, U.S. patent publication 2013/0203050, which is incorporatedherein by reference.

FIGS. 2A-2C are diagrams of hybrid biosensors. A nanometer sized hole(102) is drilled into a solid-state substrate, or solid phase membrane,(103) which separates two chambers, or compartments cis (101) and trans(107). A protein biosensor (e.g. a protein nanopore) (104) attached to acharged polymer (105), such as a single stranded DNA, is embedded intothe solid-state nanohole by electrophoretic transport. In FIG. 1C theprotein biosensor is inserted. In a nanometer sized hole which surfacehas a hydrophobic coating (106) and a lipid layer (109) attachedthereto. A nanopore may have two sides, or orifices. One side isreferred to as the “cis” side and faces the (−) negative electrode or anegatively charged buffer/ion compartment or solution. The other side isreferred to as the “trans” side and faces the (+) electrode or apositively charged buffer/ion compartment or solution. A biologicalpolymer, such as a labeled nucleic acid molecule or polymer can bepulled or driven through the pore by an electric field applied throughthe nanopore, e.g., entering on the cis side of the nanopore and exitingon the trans side of the nanopore.

FIG. 2D shows protein nanopore (104) inserted into an aperture drilledin a solid state membrane (103). Attached to the protein nanopore (104)is an oligonucleotide (108) to which a complementary secondaryoligonucleotide (111) is hybridized. Said secondary oligonucleotide(111) has one or more second members of a FRET pair (110) attached toit. Alternatively, a member of a FRET pair may be directly attached toan amino acid of a protein nanopore. For example, a hemolysin subunitmay be modified by conventional genetic engineering techniques tosubstitute a cysteine for a suitably located amino acid adjacent to theexit of the nanopore, e.g. the threonine 129. An oligonucleotide ormembers of a FRET pair may be attached via the thio group of thecysteine using conventional linker chemistries. e.g. Hermanson (citedabove).

In some embodiments, the present invention employs a hybrid nanopore,particularly for optical-based nanopore sequencing of polynucleotides.Such embodiments comprise a solid-state orifice, or aperture, into whicha protein biosensor, such as a protein nanopore, is stably inserted. Aprotein nanopore (e.g. alpha hemolysin) may be attached to a chargedpolymer (e.g. double stranded DNA) which serves as a drag force in anapplied electric field, and which may be used to guide a proteinnanopore into an aperture in a solid-state membrane. In someembodiments, the aperture in the solid-state substrate is selected to beslightly smaller than the protein, thereby preventing it fromtranslocating through the aperture. Instead, the protein will beembedded into the solid-state orifice. The solid-state substrate can bemodified to generate active sites on the surface that allow the covalentattachment of the plugged-in protein biosensor resulting in a stablehybrid biosensor.

The polymer attachment site in the biosensor can be generated by proteinengineering e.g. a mutant protein can be constructed that will allow thespecific binding of the polymer. As an example, a cysteine residue maybe inserted at the desired position of the protein. The cysteine caneither replace a natural occurring amino acid or can be incorporated asan addition amino acid. Care must be taken not to disrupt the biologicalfunction of the protein. The terminal primary amine group of a polymer(i.e. DNA) is then activated using a hetero-bifunctional crosslinker(e.g. SMCC). Subsequently, the activated polymer is covalently attachedto the cysteine residue of the protein biosensor. In some embodiments,the attachment of the polymer to the biosensor is reversible. Byimplementing a cleavable crosslinker, an easily breakable chemical bond(e.g. an S—S bond) is introduced and the charged polymer may be removedafter insertion of the biosensor into the solid-state aperture.

For someone skilled in the art it is obvious that a wide variety ofdifferent approaches for covalent or non-covalent attachment methods ofa charged polymer to the protein biosensor are possible and the abovedescribed approach merely serves as an example. The skilled artisan willalso realize that a variety of different polymers may be used as a dragforce, including, but not limited to, single or double stranded DNA,polyethyleneglycol (PEG), polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), poly-L-lysine,linear polysaccharides etc. It is also obvious that these polymers mayexhibit either a negative (−) or positive (+) charge at a given pH andthat the polarity of the electric field may be adjusted accordingly topull the polymer-biosensor complex into a solid-state aperture.

In some embodiments, a donor fluorophore is attached to the proteinnanopore. This complex is then inserted into a solid-state aperture ornanohole (for example, 3-10 nm in diameter) by applying an electricfield across the solid state nanohole until the protein nanopore istransported into the solid-state nanohole to form a hybrid nanopore. Theformation of the hybrid nanopore can be verified by (a) the insertingprotein nanopore causing a drop in current based on a partial blockageof the solid-state nanohole and by (b) the optical detection of thedonor fluorophore.

Once stable hybrid nanopores have formed single stranded, fluorescentlylabeled (or acceptor labeled) DNA is added to the cis chamber (thechamber with the (4) electrode). The applied electric field forces thenegatively charged ssDNA to translocate through the hybrid nanoporeduring which the labeled nucleotides get in close vicinity of the donorfluorophore.

Solid state, or synthetic, nanopores may be prepared in a variety ofways, as exemplified in the references cited above. In some embodimentsa helium ion microscope may be used to drill the synthetic nanopores ina variety of materials, e.g. as disclosed by Yang et al. Nanotechnology,22: 285310 (2011), which is incorporated herein by reference. A chipthat supports one or more regions of a thin-film material, e.g. siliconnitride, that has been processed to be a free-standing membrane isintroduced to the helium ion microscope (HIM) chamber. HIM motorcontrols are used to bring a free-standing membrane into the path of theion beam while the microscope is set for low magnification. Beamparameters including focus and stigmation are adjusted at a regionadjacent to the free-standing membrane, but on the solid substrate. Oncethe parameters have been properly fixed, the chip position is moved suchthat the free-standing membrane region is centered on the ion beam scanregion and the beam is blanked. The HIM field of view is set to adimension (in μm) that is sufficient to contain the entire anticipatednanopore pattern and sufficient to be useful in future optical readout(i.e. dependent on optical magnification, camera resolution, etc.). Theion beam is then rastered once through the entire field of view at apixel dwell time that results in a total ion dose sufficient to removeall or most of the membrane autofluorescence. The field of view is thenset to the proper value (smaller than that used above) to performlithographically-defined milling of either a single nanopore or an arrayof nanopores. The pixel dwell time of the pattern is set to result innanopores of one or more predetermined diameters, determined through theuse of a calibration sample prior to sample processing. This entireprocess is repeated for each desired region on a single chip and/or foreach chip introduced into the HIM chamber.

In some embodiments, the solid-state substrate may be modified togenerate active sites on the surface that allow the covalent attachmentof the plugged in protein biosensor or to modify the surface propertiesin a way to make it more suitable for a given application. Suchmodifications may be of covalent or non-covalent nature. A covalentsurface modification includes a silanization step where an organosilanecompound binds to silanol groups on the solid surface. For instance, thealkoxy groups of an alkoxysilane are hydrolyzed to formsilanol-containing species. Reaction of these silanes involves foursteps. Initially, hydrolysis of the labile groups occurs. Condensationto oligomers follows. The oligomers then hydrogen bond with hydroxylgroups of the substrate. Finally, during drying or curing, a covalentlinkage is formed with the substrate with concomitant loss of water. Forcovalent attachment organosilanes with active side groups may beemployed. Such side groups consist of, but are not limited to epoxy sidechain, aldehydes, isocyanates, isothiocyanates, azides or alkynes (clickchemistry) to name a few. For someone skilled in the art it is obviousthat multiple ways of covalently attaching a protein to a surface arepossible. For instance, certain side groups on an organosilane may needto be activated before being capable of binding a protein (e.g. primaryamines or carboxyl side groups activated with anN-hydroxysuccinimidester). Another way of attaching a protein to thesolid surface may be achieved through affinity binding by having oneaffinity partner attached to the protein and the second affinity partnerbeing located on the solid surface. Such affinity pairs consist of thegroup of, but are not limited to biotin-strepavidin, antigen-antibodyand aptamers and the corresponding target molecules. In a preferredembodiment the surface modification of the solid state nanopore includestreatment with an organosilane that renders the surface hydrophobic.Such organosilanes include but are not limited to, alkanesilanes (e.g.octadecyldimethylchlorosilane) or modified alkanesilanes such asfluorinated alkanesilanes with an alkane chain length of 5 to 30carbons. The hydrophobic surface is then treated with a dilute solutionof a lipid in pentane. After drying of the solvent and immersing thesurface in an aqueous solution the lipid will spontaneously form a layeron the surface. A layer of lipid on the solid surface might proofbeneficial for the formation of a hybrid nanopore. The lipid layer onthe solid phase might reduce the leak current between protein and solidstate nanopore and it might increase the stability of the insertedprotein pore. Combining a low capacitance solid substrate as well as alipid coating of said substrate may render the hybrid nanopore systemamenable to an electrical readout based on current fluctuationsgenerated by translocation of DNA through the hybrid nanopore. Toachieve electrical read out with such a system a means of decreasing thetranslocation speed of unmodified DNA must be combined with a lipidcoated hybrid nanopore. Molecular motors such as polymerases orhelicases may be combined with a hybrid nanopore and effectively reducethe translocation speed of DNA through the hybrid nanopore. The lipidsused for coating the surface are from the group of sphingolipids,phospholipids or sterols. A method and/or system for sequencing abiological polymer or molecule (e.g., a nucleic acid) may includeexciting one or more donor labels attached to a pore or nanopore. Abiological polymer may be translocated through the pore or nanopore,where a monomer of the biological polymer is labeled with one or moreacceptor labels. Energy may be transferred from the excited donor labelto the acceptor label of the monomer as, after the labeled monomerpasses through, exits or enters the pore or nanopore. Energy emitted bythe acceptor label as a result of the energy transfer may be detected,where the energy emitted by the acceptor label may correspond to or beassociated with a single or particular monomer (e.g., a nucleotide) of abiological polymer. The sequence of the biological polymer may then bededuced or sequenced based on the detection of the emitted energy fromthe monomer acceptor label which allows for the identification of thelabeled monomer. A pore, nanopore, channel or passage, e.g., an ionpermeable pore, nanopore, channel or passage may be utilized in thesystems and methods described herein.

A nanopore, or pore, may be labeled with one or more donor labels. Forexample, the cis side or surface and/or trans side or surface of thenanopore may be labeled with one or more donor labels. The label may beattached to the base of a pore or nanopore or to another portion ormonomer making up the nanopore or pore A label may be attached to aportion of the membrane or substrate through which a nanopore spans orto a linker or other molecule attached to the membrane, substrate ornanopore. The nanopore or pore label may be positioned or attached onthe nanopore, substrate or membrane such that the pore label can comeinto proximity with an acceptor label of a biological polymer, e.g., anucleic acid, which is translocated through the pore. The donor labelsmay have the same or different emission or absorption spectra. Thelabeling of a pore structure may be achieved via covalent ornon-covalent interactions.

A donor label (also sometimes referred to as a “pore label”) may beplaced as close as possible to the aperture, for example, the exit, of ananopore without causing an occlusion that impairs translocation of anucleic acid through the nanopore. A pore label may have a variety ofsuitable properties and/or characteristics. For example, a pore labelmay have energy absorption properties meeting particular requirements. Apore label may have a large radiation energy absorption cross-section,ranging, for example, from about 0 to 1000 nm or from about 200 to 500nm. A pore label may absorb radiation within a specific energy rangethat is higher than the energy absorption of the nucleic acid label,such as an acceptor label. The absorption energy of the pore label maybe tuned with respect to the absorption energy of a nucleic acid labelin order to control the distance at which energy transfer may occurbetween the two labels. A pore label may be stable and functional for atleast 10⁶ to 10⁹ excitation and energy transfer cycles.

Labels for Nanopores and Analytes

In some embodiments, a nanopore may be labeled with one or more quantumdots. In particular, in some embodiments, one or more quantum dots maybe attached to a nanopore, or attached to a solid phase support adjacentto (and within a FRET distance of an entrance or exit of a nanopore),and employed as donors in FRET reactions with acceptors on analytes.Such uses of quantum dots are well known and are described widely in thescientific and patent literature, such as, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,252,303,6,855,551; 7,235,361; and the like, which are incorporated herein byreference.

One example of a Quantum dot which may be utilized as a pore label is aCdTe quantum dot which can be synthesized in an aqueous solution. A CdTequantum dot may be functionalized with a nucleophilic group such asprimary amines, thiols or functional groups such as carboxylic acids. ACdTe quantum dot may include a mercaptopropionic acid capping ligand,which has a carboxylic acid functional group that may be utilized tocovalently link a quantum dot to a primary amine on the exterior of aprotein pore. The cross-linking reaction may be accomplished usingstandard cross-linking reagents (homo-bifunctional as well ashetero-bifunctional) which are known to those having ordinary skill inthe art of bioconjugation. Care may be taken to ensure that themodifications do not impair or substantially impair the translocation ofa nucleic acid through the nanopore. This may be achieved by varying thelength of the employed crosslinker molecule used to attach the donorlabel to the nanopore.

For example, the primary amine of the lysine residue 131 of the naturalalpha hemolysin protein (Song, L. et al., Science 274, (1996):1859-1866) may be used to covalently bind carboxy modified CdTe Quantumdots via l-Ethyl-3-[3-dimethylaminopropyl]carbodiimidehydrochloride/N-hydroxysuldfosuccinimide (EDC/NHS) coupling chemistry.Alternatively, amino acid 129 (threonine) may be exchanged intocysteine. Since there is no other cysteine residue in the natural alphahemolysin protein the thiol side group of the newly inserted cysteinemay be used to covalently attach other chemical moieties.

A variety of methods, mechanisms and/or routes for attaching one or morepore labels to a pore protein may be utilized. A pore protein may begenetically engineered in a manner that introduces amino acids withknown properties or various functional groups to the natural proteinsequence. Such a modification of a naturally occurring protein sequencemay be advantageous for the bioconjugation of Quantum dots to the poreprotein. For example, the introduction of a cysteine residue wouldintroduce a thiol group that would allow for the direct binding of aQuantum dot, such as a CdTe quantum dot, to a pore protein. Also, theintroduction of a Lysin residue would introduce a primary amine forbinding a Quantum dot. The introduction of glutamic acid or asparticacid would introduce a carboxylic acid moiety for binding a Quantum dot.These groups are amenable for bioconjugation with a Quantum dot usingeither homo- or hetero-bifunctional crosslinker molecules. Suchmodifications to pore proteins aimed at the introduction of functionalgroups for bioconjugation are known to those having ordinary skill inthe art. Care should be taken to ensure that the modifications do notimpair or substantially impair the translocation of a nucleic acidthrough the nanopore.

The nanopore label can be attached to a protein nanopore before or afterinsertion of said nanopore into a lipid bilayer. Where a label isattached before insertion into a lipid bilayer, care may be taken tolabel the base of the nanopore and avoid random labeling of the poreprotein. This can be achieved by genetic engineering of the pore proteinto allow site specific attachment of the pore label, as discussed below.An advantage of this approach is the bulk production of labelednanopores. Alternatively, a labeling reaction of a pre-inserted nanoporemay ensure site-specific attachment of the label to the base(trans-side) of the nanopore without genetically engineering the poreprotein.

A biological polymer, e.g., a nucleic acid molecule or polymer, may belabeled with one or more acceptor labels. For a nucleic acid molecule,each of the four nucleotides or building blocks of a nucleic acidmolecule may be labeled with an acceptor label thereby creating alabeled (e.g. fluorescent) counterpart to each naturally occurringnucleotide. The acceptor label may be in the form of an energy acceptingmolecule which can be attached to one or more nucleotides on a portionor on the entire strand of a converted nucleic acid.

A variety of methods may be utilized to label the monomers ornucleotides of a nucleic acid molecule or polymer. A labeled nucleotidemay be incorporated into a nucleic acid during synthesis of a newnucleic acid using the original sample as a template (“labeling bysynthesis”). For example, the labeling of nucleic acid may be achievedvia PCR, whole genome amplification, rolling circle amplification,primer extension or the like or via various combinations and extensionsof the above methods known to persons having ordinary skill in the art.

Labeling of a nucleic acid may be achieved by replicating the nucleicacid in the presence of a modified nucleotide analog having a label,which leads to the incorporation of that label into the newly generatednucleic acid. The labeling process can also be achieved by incorporatinga nucleotide analog with a functional group that can be used tocovalently attach an energy accepting moiety in a secondary labelingstep. Such replication can be accomplished by whole genome amplification(Zhang. L et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89 (1992): 5847) or stranddisplacement amplification such as rolling circle amplification, nicktranslation, transcription, reverse transcription, primer extension andpolymerase chain reaction (PCR), degenerate oligonucleotide primer PCR(DOP-PCR) (Telenius, H. et al., Genomics 13 (1992): 718-725) orcombinations of the above methods.

A label may comprise a reactive group such as a nucleophile (amines,thiols etc.). Such nucleophiles, which are not present in naturalnucleic acids, can then be used to attach fluorescent labels via amineor thiol reactive chemistry such as NHS esters, maleimides, epoxy rings,isocyanates etc. Such nucleophile reactive fluorescent dyes (i.e.NHS-dyes) are readily commercially available from different sources. Anadvantage of labeling a nucleic acid with small nucleophiles lies in thehigh efficiency of incorporation of such labeled nucleotides when a“labeling by synthesis” approach is used. Bulky fluorescently labelednucleic acid building blocks may be poorly incorporated by polymerasesdue to steric hindrance of the labels during the polymerization processinto newly synthesized DNA.

In some embodiments, DNA can be directly chemically modified withoutpolymerase mediated incorporation of labeled nucleotides. One example ofa modification includes cis-platinum containing dyes tat modify Guaninebases at their N7 position (Hoevel. T. et al., Bio Techniques 27 (1999):1064-1067). Another example includes the modifying of pyrimidines withhydroxylamine at the C6 position which leads to 6-hydroxylaminoderivatives. The resulting amine groups can be further modified withamine reactive dyes (e.g. NHS-Cy5). Yet another example are azide oralkyne modified nucleotides which are readily incorporated bypolymerases (Gierlich et al., Chem. Eur. J., 2007, 13, 9486-0404). Thealkyne or azide modified polynucleotide is subsequently labeled with anazide or alkyne modified fluorophore following well established clickchemistry protocols.

As mentioned above, in some embodiments, DNA may be labeled using “clickchemistry,” e.g. using commercially available kits (such as “Click-It”from Life Technologies, Carlsbad, Calif.). Click chemistry in generalrefers to a synthetic process in which two molecules are linked togetherby a highly efficient chemical reaction, one which is essentiallyirreversible, in which the yield is nearly 100%, and which produces fewor no reaction byproducts. More recently, the meaning has come to referto the cyclization reaction of a substituted alkyne with a substitutedazide to from a 1,2,3-triazole bearing the two substituents. Whencatalyzed by copper at room temperature the reaction is known as theHuisgen cycloaddition, and it fully satisfies the requirements for clickchemistry in that no other chemical functionality on the two moleculesis affected during the reaction. Thus the coupling reaction has foundbroad application in bioconjugate chemistry, for example, in dyelabeling of DNA or proteins, where many amine, hydroxy, or thiol groupsmay be found. The key requirement is that an alkyne group and an azidecan easily be introduced into the molecules to be coupled. For example,in the coupling of a fluorescent dye to a DNA oligonucleotide, the azidegroup is typically introduced synthetically into the dye, while thealkyne group is incorporated into the DNA during oligonucleotidesynthesis. Upon mixing in the presence of Cu+ the two components arequickly coupled to form the triazole, in this case bearing theoligonucleotide as one substituent and the dye as the other. Anothermore recent advance provides the alkyne component within a strained ringstructure. In this case the reaction with an azide does not require thecopper catalyst, being driven by release of the ring strain energy asthe triazole is formed. This is better known as the copper-free clickreaction. Guidance for applying click chemistry to methods of theinvention may be found in the following references which areincorporated by reference: Rostovtsev V V, Green L G; Fokin, Valery V,Sharpless K B (2002). “A Stepwise Huisgen Cycloaddition Process:Copper(I)-Catalyzed Regioselective “Ligation” of Azides and TerminalAlkynes”. Angewandte Chemie International Edition 41 (14): 2596-2599.Moses J E and Moorhouse A D (2007). “The growing applications of clickchemistry”. Chem. Soc. Rev. 36 (8): 1249-1262.

Whenever two or more mutually quenching dyes are used, such dyes may beattached to DNA using orthogonal attachment chemistries. For instanceNHS esters can be used to react very specifically with primary amines ormaleimides will react with thiol groups. Either primary amines (NH₂) orthiol (SH) modified nucleotides are commercially available. Theserelatively small modifications are readily incorporated in a polymerasemediated DNA synthesis and can be used for subsequent labeling reactionsusing either NHS or maleimide modified dyes. Guidance for selecting andusing such orthogonal linker chemistries may be found in Hermanson(cited above).

Additional orthogonal attachment chemistries are shown in FIGS. 3A-3H.FIG. 3A shows typical attachment positions of linking moieties onnucleoside bases. FIG. 3B shows a reaction diagram for Huisgen-typecycloaddition for a copper-catalyzed reaction and an uncatalyzedreaction, e.g. disclosed in the references cited above. FIG. 3C shows areaction diagram for alkene plus nitrile oxide cycloaddition, e.g. asdisclosed in Gutsmiedl et al. Org. Lett., 1: 2405-2408 (2009). FIG. 3Dshows a reaction diagram for Diels-Alder cycloaddition, e.g. disclosedin Seelig et al. Tetrahedron Lett., 38: 7729-7732 (1997). FIG. 3E showsa reaction diagram for carbonyl ligation, e.g. as disclosed in Casi etal, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 134: 5887-5892 (2012); Shao et al J. Am. Chem.Soc., 117: 3893-3899 (1995); Rideout, Science, 233: 561-563 (1986); orthe like. FIG. 3F shows a reaction diagram for Michael addition, e.g.disclosed in Brinkley, Bioconjugate Chemistry. 3: 2-13 (1992). FIG. 3Gshows a reaction diagram for native chemical ligation, e.g. disclosed inSchuler et al. Bioconjugate Chemistry, 13: 1039-1043 (2002); Dawson etal, Science, 266: 776-779 (1994), or the like. FIG. 3H shows a reactiondiagram for amide formation via an active ester, e.g. disclosed inHermanson (cited above).

A nucleic acid molecule may be directly modified with N-Bromosuccinimidewhich upon reacting with the nucleic acid will result in 5-Bromocystein,8-Bromoadenine and 8-Bromoguanine. The modified nucleotides can befurther reacted with di-amine nucleophiles. The remaining nucleophilecan then be reacted with an amine reactive dye (e.g. NHS-dye) (HermansonG. in Bioconjugate Techniques, cited above).

A combination of 1, 2, 3 or 4 nucleotides in a nucleic acid strand maybe exchanged with their labeled counterpart. The various combinations oflabeled nucleotides can be sequenced in parallel, e.g., labeling asource nucleic acid or DNA with combinations of 2 labeled nucleotides inaddition to the four single labeled samples, which will result in atotal of 10 differently labeled sample nucleic acid molecules or DNAs(G, A, T, C, GA, GT, GC, AT, AC, TC). The resulting sequence pattern mayallow for a more accurate sequence alignment due to overlappingnucleotide positions in the redundant sequence read-out.

A method for sequencing a polymer, such as a nucleic acid moleculeincludes providing a nanopore or pore protein (or a synthetic pore)inserted in a membrane or membrane like structure or other substrate.The base or other portion of the pore may be modified with one or morepore labels. The base may refer to the Trans side of the pore.Optionally, the Cis and/or Trans side of the pore may be modified withone or more pore labels. Nucleic acid polymers to be analyzed orsequenced may be used as a template for producing a labeled version ofthe nucleic acid polymer, in which one of the four nucleotides or up toall four nucleotides in the resulting polymer is/are replaced with thenucleotide's labeled analogue(s). An electric field is applied to thenanopore which forces the labeled nucleic acid polymer through thenanopore, while an external monochromatic or other light source may beused to illuminate the nanopore, thereby exciting the pore label. As,after or before labeled nucleotides of the nucleic acid pass through,exit or enter the nanopore, energy is transferred from the pore label toa nucleotide label, which results in emission of lower energy radiation.The nucleotide label radiation is then detected by a confocal microscopesetup or other optical detection system or light microscopy systemcapable of single molecule detection known to people having ordinaryskill in the art. Examples of such detection systems include but are notlimited to confocal microscopy, epifluorescent microscopy and totalinternal reflection fluorescent (TIRF) microscopy. Other polymers (e.g.,proteins and polymers other than nucleic acids) having labeled monomersmay also be sequenced according to the methods described herein. In someembodiments, fluorescent labels or donor molecules are excited in a TIRFsystem with an evanescent wave, sometimes referred to herein as“evanescent wave excitation.”

Energy may be transferred from a pore or nanopore donor label (e.g., aQuantum Dot) to an acceptor label on a polymer (e.g., a nucleic acid)when an acceptor label of an acceptor labeled monomer (e.g., nucleotide)of the polymer interacts with the donor label as, after or before thelabeled monomer exits, enters or passes through a nanopore. For example,the donor label may be positioned on or attached to the nanopore on thecis or trans side or surface of the nanopore such that the interactionor energy transfer between the donor label and acceptor label does nottake place until the labeled monomer exits the nanopore and comes intothe vicinity or proximity of the donor label outside of the nanoporechannel or opening. As a result, interaction between the labels, energytransfer from the donor label to the acceptor label, emission of energyfrom the acceptor label and/or measurement or detection of an emissionof energy from the acceptor label may take place outside of the passage,channel or opening running through the nanopore, e.g., within a cis ortrans chamber on the cis or trans sides of a nanopore. The measurementor detection of the energy emitted from the acceptor label of a monomermay be utilized to identify the monomer.

The nanopore label may be positioned outside of the passage, channel oropening of the nanopore such that the label may be visible or exposed tofacilitate excitation or illumination of the label. The interaction andenergy transfer between a donor label and accepter label and theemission of energy from the acceptor label as a result of the energytransfer may take place outside of the passage, channel or opening ofthe nanopore. This may facilitate ease and accuracy of the detection ormeasurement of energy or light emission from the acceptor label, e.g.,via an optical detection or measurement device.

A donor label may be attached in various manners and/or at various siteson a nanopore. For example, a donor label may be directly or indirectlyattached or connected to a portion or unit of the nanopore.Alternatively, a donor label may be positioned adjacent to a nanopore.

Each acceptor labeled monomer (e.g., nucleotide) of a polymer (e.g.,nucleic acid) can interact sequentially with a donor label positioned onor next to or attached directly or indirectly to the exit of a nanoporeor channel through which the polymer is translocated. The interactionbetween the donor and acceptor labels may take place outside of thenanopore channel or opening, e.g., after the acceptor labeled monomerexits the nanopore or before the monomer enters the nanopore. Theinteraction may take place within or partially within the nanoporechannel or opening, e.g., while the acceptor labeled monomer passesthrough, enters or exits the nanopore.

When one of the four nucleotides of a nucleic acid is labeled, the timedependent signal arising from the single nucleotide label emission isconverted into a sequence corresponding to the positions of the labelednucleotide in the nucleic acid sequence. The process is then repeatedfor each of the four nucleotides in separate samples and the fourpartial sequences are then aligned to assemble an entire nucleic acidsequence.

When multi-color labeled nucleic acid (DNA) sequences are analyzed, theenergy transfer from one or more donor labels to each of the fourdistinct acceptor labels that may exist on a nucleic acid molecule mayresult in light emission at four distinct wavelengths or colors (eachassociated with one of the four nucleotides) which allows for a directsequence read-out.

Translocation Speed

A major obstacle associated with nanopore based sequencing approaches isthe high translocation velocity of nucleic acid through a nanopore(˜500,000-1,000,000 nucleotides/sec) which doesn't allow for directsequence readout due to the limited bandwidth of the recordingequipment. A way of slowing down the nucleic acid translocation with twodifferent nanopore proteins was recently shown by Cherf et al. (NatBiotechnol. 2012 Feb. 14; 3(4):344-8) and Manrao et al. (Nat Biotechnol.2012 Mar. 25; 30(4):349-53) and are incorporated herein by reference.Both groups used a DNA polymerase to synthesize a complementary strandfrom a target template which resulted in the step-wise translocation ofthe template DNA through the nanopore. Hence, the synthesis speed of thenucleic acid polymerase (10-500 nucleotides/sec) determined thetranslocation speed of the DNA and since it's roughly 3-4 orders ofmagnitude slower than direct nucleic acid translocation the analysis ofsingle nucleotides became feasible. However, the polymerase-aidedtranslocation requires significant sample preparation to generate abinding site for the polymerase and the nucleic acid synthesis has to beblocked in bulk and can only start once the nucleic acid-polymerasecomplex is captured by the nanopore protein. This results in a rathercomplex set-up which might prevent the implementation in a commercialsetting. Furthermore, fluctuation in polymerase synthesis reactions suchas a stalled polymerization as well as the dissociation of thepolymerase from the nucleic acid may hamper the sequence read-outresulting in a high error rate and reduced read-length, respectively. Insome embodiments, a target nucleic acid is enzymatically copied byincorporating fluorescent modified nucleotides. In other embodiments,modified nucleotides with reactive groups are incorporated which can belabeled in a post-extension reaction. The resulting labeled nucleic acidhas an increased nominal diameter which results in a decreasedtranslocation velocity when pulled through a nanopore. The preferredtranslocation rate for optical sequencing lies in the range of 1-1000nucleotides per second with a more preferred range of 200-800nucleotides per second and a most preferred translocation rate of200-600 nucleotides per second.

Alternatively, translocation speed of a polynucleotide, especially asingle stranded polynucleotide, may be controlled by employing ananopore dimensioned so that adducts and/or labels. e.g. organic dyesattached to bases, inhibit but do not prevent polynucleotidetranslocation. A translocation speed may be selected by attaching labelsand/or adducts at a predetermined density. Such labels and/or adductsmay have regular spaced attachments. e.g. every third nucleotide or thelike, or they may have random, or pseudorandom attachments, e.g. every Cmay be labeled. In some embodiments, a selected number of differentnucleotides may be labeled. e.g. every A and C, or every A and G, orevery A and T, or every C, or the like, that results in an averagetranslocation speed. Such average speed may be decreased by attachingadducts to unlabeled nucleotides. Adducts include any molecule, usuallyand organic molecule, that may be attached to a nucleotide usingconventional chemistries. Typically adducts have a molecular weight inthe same range as common organic dyes, e.g. fluorescein. Cy3, or thelike. Adducts may or may not be capable of generating signals, that is,serving as a label. In some embodiments, adducts and/or labels areattached to bases of nucleotides. In other embodiments, labels and/oradducts may be attached to linkages between nucleosides in apolynucleotide. In one aspect, a method of controlling translocationvelocity of a single stranded polynucleotide through a nanoporecomprises the step of attaching adducts to the polynucleotide at adensity, wherein translocation velocity of the single strandedpolynucleotide monotonically decreases with a larger number of adductsattached, or with the density of adducts attached. In some embodiments,not every kind of nucleotide of a polynucleotide is labeled. Forexample, four different sets of a polynucleotide may be produced wherenucleotides of each set are labeled with the same molecule, e.g. afluorescent organic dye acceptor, but in each set a different kind ofnucleotide will be labeled. Thus, in set 1 only A's may be labeled; inset 2 only C's may be labeled; in set 3 only G's may be labeled; and soon. After such labeling, the four sets of polynucleotides may then beanalyzed separately in accordance with the invention and a nucleotidesequence of the polynucleotide determined from the data generated in thefour analysis. In such embodiments, and similar embodiments, e.g. twolabels are used, where some of the nucleotides of a polynucleotide arenot labeled, translocation speed through a nanopore will be affected bythe distribution of label along the polynucleotide. To prevent suchvariability in translocation speed, in some embodiments, nucleotidesthat are not labeled with an acceptor or donor for generating signals todetermine nucleotide sequence, may be modified by attaching anon-signal-producing adduct that has substantially the same effect ontranslocation speed as the signal-producing labels.

This disclosure is not intended to be limited to the scope of theparticular forms set forth, but is intended to cover alternatives,modifications, and equivalents of the variations described herein.Further, the scope of the disclosure fully encompasses other variationsthat may become obvious to those skilled in the art in view of thisdisclosure. The scope of the present invention is limited only by theappended claims.

Kits

The invention may include kits for carrying out the methods of theinvention. In some embodiments, kits include reagents for addingreactive groups to target polynucleotides. For example, a targetpolynucleotide for analysis in accordance with the invention may beobtained by transcribing its complement from a sample using a nucleicacid polymerase in the presence of nucleoside triphosphate analogs thatinclude reactive groups, such as amines or thiols. Thus, in someembodiments kits comprise one or more nucleoside triphosphate analogswith reactive groups. Kits may further comprise one or more mutuallyquenching fluorescent labels with complementary functionalities to thereactive groups. Kits may further comprise a nucleic acid polymerase forincorporating nucleoside triphosphates into a target polynucleotide.Nucleic acid polymerases may include a reverse transcriptase when mRNAis used to produce target polynucleotides, or nucleic acid polymerasesmay include a DNA polymerase when genomic DNA is used to produce targetpolynucleotides. Kits may further comprise buffers, co-factors and likereagents for carrying out polymerase reactions. Likewise, kits mayfurther include buffers and other reaction components for carrying outreactions between reactive groups and complementary functionalities onmutually quenching fluorescent labels in order to produce a labeledtarget polynucleotide. Kits may further include solid phase membranesand protein nanopores for assembly into an operable nanopore array. Suchlatter kits may further include donor members of a FRET pair forattachment to protein nanopores or to a solid phase membrane. Kits mayinclude assembled nanopore arrays comprising a solid phase membraneincluding incorporated protein nanopores and donor members of a FRETpair.

DEFINITIONS

“FRET” or “Forrester, or fluorescence, resonant energy transfer” means anon-radiative dipole-dipole energy transfer mechanism from a donor toacceptor fluorophore. The efficiency of FRET may be dependent upon thedistance between donor and acceptor as well as the properties of thefluorophores (Stryer, L., Annu Rev Biochem. 47 (1978): 819-846). “FRETdistance” means a distance between a FRET donor and a FRET acceptor overwhich a FRET interaction can take place and a detectable FRET signalproduced by the FRET acceptor.

“Kit” refers to any delivery system for delivering materials or reagentsfor carrying out a method of the invention. In the context of reactionassays, such delivery systems include systems that allow for thestorage, transport, or delivery of reaction reagents (e.g., fluorescentlabels, such as mutually quenching fluorescent labels, fluorescent labellinking agents, enzymes, etc. in the appropriate containers) and/orsupporting materials (e.g., buffers, written instructions for performingthe assay etc.) from one location to another. For example, kits includeone or more enclosures (e.g., boxes) containing the relevant reactionreagents and/or supporting materials. Such contents may be delivered tothe intended recipient together or separately. For example, a firstcontainer may contain an enzyme for use in an assay, while a second ormore containers contain mutually quenching fluorescent labels.

“Microfluidics” or “nanofluidics” device means an integrated system ofone or more chambers, ports, and channels that am interconnected and influid communication and designed for carrying out an analytical reactionor process, either alone or in cooperation with an appliance orinstrument that provides support functions, such as sample introduction,fluid and/or reagent driving means, temperature control detectionsystems, data collection and/or integration systems, and the like.Microfluidics and nanofluidics devices may further include valves,pumps, filters and specialized functional coatings on interior walls.e.g. to prevent adsorption of sample components or reactants, facilitatereagent movement by electroosmosis, or the like. Such devices areusually fabricated in or as a solid substrate, which may be glass,plastic, or other solid polymeric materials, and may have a planarformat for ease of detecting and monitoring sample and reagent movement,especially via optical or electrochemical methods. In some embodiments,such devices are disposable after a single use. Features of amicrofluidic device usually have cross-sectional dimensions of less thana few hundred square micrometers and passages typically have capillarydimensions, e.g. having maximal cross-sectional dimensions of from about500 μm to about 0.1 μm. Microfluidics devices typically have volumecapacities in the range of from 1 μL to a few nL, e.g. 10-100 nL.Dimensions of corresponding structures in nanofluidics devices aretypically from 1 to 3 orders of magnitude less than those formicrofluidics devices. The fabrication and operation of microfluidicsand nanofluidics devices are well-known in the art as exemplified by thefollowing references that are incorporated by reference: Ramsey, U.S.Pat. Nos. 6,001,229; 5,858,195; 6,010,607; and 6,033,546; Soane et al,U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,126,022 and 6,054,034; Nelson et al, U.S. Pat. No.6,613,525; Maher et al. U.S. Pat. No. 6,399,952; Ricco et al.International patent publication WO 02/24322; Bjornson et al,International patent publication WO 99/19717; Wilding et al, U.S. Pat.Nos. 5,587,128; 5,498,392; Sia et al, Electrophoresis, 24: 3563-3576(2003); Unger et al, Science, 288: 113-116 (2000); Enzelberger et al.U.S. Pat. No. 6,960,437: Cao. “nanostructures & Nanomaterials:Synthesis. Properties & Applications.” (Imperial College Press. London,2004).

“Nanopore” means any opening positioned in a substrate that allows thepassage of analytes through the substrate in a predetermined ordiscernable order, or in the case of polymer analytes, passage of theirmonomeric units through the substrate in a predetermined or discernibleorder. In the latter case, a predetermined or discernible order may bethe primary sequence of monomeric units in the polymer. Examples ofnanopores include proteinaceous or protein based nanopores, synthetic orsolid state nanopores, and hybrid nanopores comprising a solid statenanopore having a protein nanopore embedded therein. A nanopore may havean inner diameter of 1-10 nm or 1-5 nm or 1-3 nm. Examples of proteinnanopores include but are not limited to, alpha-hemolysin,voltage-dependent mitochondrial porin (VDAC). OmpF, OmpC, MspA and LamB(maltoporin), e.g. disclosed in Rhee, M. et al., Trends inBiotechnology, 25(4) (2007): 174-181; Bayley et al (cited above);Gundlach et al, U.S. patent publication 2012/0055792; and the like,which are incorporated herein by reference. Any protein pore that allowsthe translocation of single nucleic acid molecules may be employed. Ananopore protein may be labeled at a specific site on the exterior ofthe pore, or at a specific site on the exterior of one or more monomerunits making up the pore forming protein. Pore proteins are chosen froma group of proteins such as, but not limited to, alpha-hemolysin, MspA,voltage-dependent mitochondrial porin (VDAC), Anthrax porin. OmpF, OmpCand LamB (maltoporin). Integration of the pore protein into the solidstate hole is accomplished by attaching a charged polymer to the poreprotein. After applying an electric field the charged complex iselectrophoretically pulled into the solid state hole. A syntheticnanopore, or solid-state nanopore, may be created in various forms ofsolid substrates, examples of which include but are not limited tosilicones (e.g. Si3N4, SiO2), metals, metal oxides (e.g. Al2O3)plastics, glass, semiconductor material, and combinations thereof. Asynthetic nanopore may be more stable than a biological protein porepositioned in a lipid bilayer membrane. A synthetic nanopore may also becreated by using a carbon nanotube embedded in a suitable substrate suchas but not limited to polymerized epoxy. Carbon nanotubes can haveuniform and well-defined chemical and structural properties. Varioussized carbon nanotubes can be obtained, ranging from one to hundreds ofnanometers. The surface charge of a carbon nanotube is known to be aboutzero, and as a result, electrophoretic transport of a nucleic acidthrough the nanopore becomes simple and predictable (Ito. T. et al.,Chem. Commun. 12 (2003): 1482-83). The substrate surface of a syntheticnanopore may be chemically modified to allow for covalent attachment ofthe protein pore or to render the surface properties suitable foroptical nanopore sequencing. Such surface modifications can be covalentor non-covalent. Most covalent modification include an organosilanedeposition for which the most common protocols are described: 1)Deposition from aqueous alcohol. This is the most facile method forpreparing silylated surfaces. A 95% ethanol-5% water solution isadjusted to pH 4.5-5.5 with acetic acid. Silane is added with stirringto yield a 2% final concentration. After hydrolysis and silanol groupformation the substrate is added for 2-5 min. After rinsed free ofexcess materials by dipping briefly in ethanol. Cure of the silane layeris for 5-10 min at 110 degrees Celsius. 2) Vapor Phase Deposition.Silanes can be applied to substrates under dry aprotic conditions bychemical vapor deposition methods. These methods favor monolayerdeposition. In closed chamber designs, substrates are heated tosufficient temperature to achieve 5 mm vapor pressure. Alternatively,vacuum can be applied until silane evaporation is observed. 3) Spin-ondeposition. Spin-on applications can be made under hydrolytic conditionswhich favor maximum functionalization and polylayer deposition or dryconditions which favor monolayer deposition. In some embodiments, singlenanopores are employed with methods of the invention. In otherembodiments, a plurality of nanopores are employed. In some of thelatter embodiments, a plurality of nanopores is employed as an array ofnanopores, usually disposed in a planar substrate, such as a solid phasemembrane. Nanopores of a nanopore array may be spaced regularly, forexample, in a rectilinear pattern, or may be spaced randomly. In apreferred embodiment, nanopores are spaced regularly in a rectilinearpattern in a planar solid phase substrate.

“Peptide,” “peptide fragment,” “polypeptide,” “oligopeptide,” or“fragment” in reference to a peptide are used synonymously herein andrefer to a compound made up of a single unbranched chain of amino acidresidues linked by peptide bonds. Amino acids in a peptide orpolypeptide may be derivatized with various moieties, including but notlimited to, polyethylene glycol, dyes, biotin, haptens, or likemoieties. The number of amino acid residues in a peptide varies widely;however, preferably, peptides or oligopeptides referred to hereinusually have from 2 to 70 amino acid residues; and more preferably, theyhave for 2 to 50 amino acid residues. Polypeptides and peptide fragmentsreferred to herein usually have from a few tens of amino acid residues,e.g. 20, to up to a few hundred amino acid residues, e.g. 200, or more.

“Polymer” means a plurality of monomers connected into a linear chain.Usually, polymers comprise more than one type of monomer, for example,as a polynucleotide comprising A's. C's. G's and T's, or a polypeptidecomprising more than one kind of amino acid. Monomers may includewithout limitation nucleosides and derivatives or analogs thereof andamino acids and derivatives and analogs thereof. In some embodiments,polymers are polynucleotides, whereby nucleoside monomers are connectedby phosphodiester linkages, or analogs thereof.

“Polynucleotide” or “oligonucleotide” are used interchangeably and eachmean a linear polymer of nucleotide monomers. Whenever the use of anoligonucleotide or polynucleotide requires enzymatic processing, such asextension by a polymerase, ligation by a ligase, or the like, one ofordinary skill would understand that oligonucleotides or polynucleotidesin those instances would not contain certain analogs of internucleosidiclinkages, sugar moieties, or bases at any or some positions.Polynucleotides typically range in size from a few monomeric units, e.g.5-40, when they are usually referred to as “oligonucleotides,” toseveral thousand monomeric units. Whenever a polynucleotide oroligonucleotide is represented by a sequence of letters (upper or lowercase), such as “ATGCCTG,” it will be understood that the nucleotides arein 5′-+3′ order from left to right and that “A” denotes deoxyadenosine,“C” denotes deoxycytidine. “G” denotes deoxyguanosine, and “T” denotesthymidine. “I” denotes deoxyinosine, “U” denotes uridine, unlessotherwise indicated or obvious from context. Unless otherwise noted theterminology and atom numbering conventions will follow those disclosedin Strachan and Read. Human Molecular Genetics 2 (Wiley-Liss, New York,1999). Usually polynucleotides comprise the four natural nucleosides(e.g. deoxyadenosine, deoxycytidine, deoxyguanosine, deoxythymidine forDNA or their ribose counterparts for RNA) linked by phosphodiesterlinkages; however, they may also comprise non-natural nucleotideanalogs, e.g. including modified bases, sugars, or internucleosidiclinkages. It is clear to those skilled in the art that where an enzymehas specific oligonucleotide or polynucleotide substrate requirementsfor activity, e.g. single stranded DNA, RNA/DNA duplex, or the like,then selection of appropriate composition for the oligonucleotide orpolynucleotide substrates is well within the knowledge of one ofordinary skill, especially with guidance from treatises, such asSambrook et al, Molecular Cloning, Second Edition (Cold Spring HarborLaboratory, New York, 1989), and like references. Likewise, theoligonucleotide and polynucleotide may refer to either a single strandedform or a double stranded form (i.e. duplexes of an oligonucleotide orpolynucleotide and its respective complement). It will be clear to oneof ordinary skill which form or whether both forms are intended from thecontext of the terms usage.

“Sequence determination”, “sequencing” or “determining a nucleotidesequence” or like terms in reference to polymers, such aspolynucleotides, includes determination of partial as well as fullsequence information of the polymer. In some embodiments, sequencedetermination may include detection or measurement of an identifyingcharacteristic, or fingerprint, of a polymer, such as a unique, orsubstantially unique, sequence of signals that is correlated to aparticular polymer sequence. In some embodiments, such correlation is aone-to-one correspondence. In other embodiments, such correlation maynot be unique. In other embodiments, such correlation permitsidentification of a polymer with a particular sequence with aprobability of greater than ninety percent; in other embodiments, suchidentification can be made with a probability of greater thanninety-nine percent. In the case of polynucleotides, the above termsinclude identifying sequences of subsets of the full set of four naturalnucleotides, A, C, G and T, such as, for example, a sequence of just A'sand C's of a target polynucleotide. That is, the terms include thedetermination of the identities, ordering, and locations of one, two,three or all of the four types of nucleotides within a targetpolynucleotide. In some embodiments, the terms include the determinationof the identities, ordering, and locations of two, three or all of thefour types of nucleotides within a target polynucleotide. In someembodiments sequence determination may be accomplished by identifyingthe ordering and locations of a single type of nucleotide, e.g.cylosines, within the target polynucleotide “catcgc . . . ” so that itssequence is represented as a binary code. e.g. “100101 . . . ”representing “c-(not c)(not c)c-(not c c . . . ” and the like. In someembodiments, the terms may also include subsequences of a targetpolynucleotide that serve as a fingerprint for the targetpolynucleotide; that is, subsequences that uniquely identify a targetpolynucleotide within a set of polynucleotides, e.g. all different RNAsequences expressed by a cell.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of determining a nucleotide sequence ofat least one polynucleotide, the method comprising the steps of:translocating at least one single stranded polynucleotide through ananopore, wherein nucleotides of the single stranded polynucleotide arelabeled with fluorescent labels such that fluorescent labels of adjacentnucleotides are in a quenched state in free solution and wherein thenanopore forces the fluorescent labels within the nanopore into aconstrained state wherein substantially no detectable signal isgenerated: exciting the fluorescent label of each nucleotide uponexiting the nanopore and prior to formation of a quenched state with anadjacent nucleotide; measuring a fluorescent signal generated by theexiting fluorescent label to identify the nucleotide to which thefluorescent label is attached; and determining a nucleotide sequence ofthe polynucleotide from a sequence of fluorescent signals.
 2. The methodof claim 1 wherein nucleotides of said polynucleotide are labeled withsecond members of a FRET pair, each second member producing a FRETsignal indicative of the nucleotide to which it is attached, and whereinnucleotides of said polynucleotide pass in sequence by a first member ofthe FRET pair positioned adjacent to said nanopore so that each secondmember upon exiting said nanopore passes within a FRET distance of thefirst member of the FRET pair; and wherein said step of excitingincludes exposing the first member to a light beam of a first wavelengthso that FRET occurs between the first and second members of the FRETpair within the FRET distance to generate a FRET signal of a secondwavelength indicative of the nucleotide exiting said nanopore.
 3. Themethod of claim 2 wherein said nanopore is disposed in a solid phasemembrane and wherein said first member of said FRET pair is attached tothe solid phase membrane adjacent to said nanopore.
 4. The method ofclaim 2 wherein said nanopore is a protein nanopore and wherein saidfirst member of said FRET pair is attached to the protein nanopore. 5.The method of claims 2 through A4 wherein said first member of said FRETpair is a donor and said second member of said FRET pair is an acceptor.6. The method of claim 5 wherein said donor is a quantum dot.
 7. Themethod of claim 5 wherein said acceptor is a fluorescent organic dye. 8.The method of claim 5 wherein said step of exposing includes exposingsaid donor to an evanescent wave from a total internally reflectedexcitation.
 9. The method of claim 1 wherein said nanopore is embeddedin a lipid bilayer.
 10. The method of claim A1 wherein said nanopore isin a nanopore array comprising a plurality of substantially identicalnanopores.
 11. The method of claim 10 wherein said nanopores of saidnanopore array are protein nanopores.
 12. The method of claim 11 whereinsaid nanopore array comprises a solid phase membrane separating a firstchamber from a second chamber, the solid phase membrane comprising aplanar array of apertures each having said protein nanopore immobilizedtherein.
 13. A method for determining a monomer sequence of a polymercomprising the steps of: (a) translocating a polymer through a nanopore,wherein monomers of the polymer are labeled with fluorescent labels suchthat in free solution fluorescent labels of adjacent monomers are in asubstantially quenched state and wherein the nanopore constrainsfluorescent labels within its bore into a constrained state such thatsubstantially no detectable fluorescent signal is generated therein; (b)exciting the florescent label of each monomer upon exiting the nanoporeand prior to formation of a quenched state with an adjacent fluorescentlabel; (c) measuring a fluorescent signal generated by the exitingfluorescent label to identify the monomer to which the fluorescent labelis attached; and (d) determining a monomer sequence of the polymer froma sequence of fluorescent signals.
 14. The method of claim 13 whereinmonomers of said polymer are labeled with second members of a FRET pair,each second member producing a FRET signal indicative of the monomer towhich it is attached, and wherein monomers of said polymer pass insequence by a first member of the FRET pair positioned adjacent to saidnanopore so that each second member upon exiting said nanopore passeswithin a FRET distance of the first member of the FRET pair; and whereinsaid step of exciting includes exposing the first member to a light beamof a first wavelength so that FRET occurs between the first and secondmembers of the FRET pair within the FRET distance to generate a FRETsignal of a second wavelength indicative of the nucleotide exiting saidnanopore.
 15. The method of claim 14 wherein said nanopore is a proteinnanopore and wherein said first member of said FRET pair is a donorattached to the protein nanopore and said second member of said FRETpair is an acceptor attached to a monomer.
 16. The method of claim 15wherein said donor is a quantum dot and wherein said acceptor is afluorescent organic dye selected from a mutually quenching set.